Personality Traits Theory: Key Concepts and Applications - BBA First Semester LU Notes

Personality Traits Theory

Murray's Needs Theory

Henry Murray (1893-1988) was active in developing a theory of motivation from the 1930s to the 1960s. He believed that a need is a potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances. It is a noun that stands for the fact that a certain trend is apt to recur. (Murray et al. 1938) A major assumption of Murray’s theory was that behavior is driven by an internal state of disequilibrium. In other words, we lack something, and this drives us, or we are dissatisfied, and we desire something.

Murray distinguished two kinds of needs:

• Primary Needs (Viscerogenic): Needs that arise from our physiological nature. They include basic needs like food, water, air, sex, and avoidance of pain.

• Secondary Needs (Psychogenic): Needs that are either derived from our biological needs or inherent in our psychological nature. These include:

  • Achievement (a desire to overcome obstacles and reach high standards)
  • Recognition (a need to gain prestige or social standing)
  • Dominance (a need to control others)
  • Aggression (a need to overcome opposition forcefully)
  • Autonomy (a need to be independent)
  • Affiliation (a need to establish and maintain social relationships)
  • Rejection (a need to exclude others)
  • Nurturance (a need to care for others)
  • Play (a need for relaxation and fun)
  • Cognizance (a need to know and understand)

Murray developed a comprehensive list of needs that apply to all humans but believed that individuals differ in how these needs are ranked and expressed. The balance between different needs forms the basis of personality. Murray’s theory of needs is based on the idea that stronger needs are expressed more often over time, leading to more intense behavior.

His main contribution was the notion that personality is driven by secondary needs, such as achievement, dominance, affiliation, and nurturance. These needs shape our personality and drive much of our behavior. Over time, research has narrowed down these needs to four dominant motives: achievement, power, affiliation, and intimacy.

1. Achievement Motivation: This refers to the desire to accomplish something significant and to perform well. Studies on this trait, especially by David McClelland in the 1970s, showed that people with high achievement motivation tend to pursue difficult goals that test their ability. They are persistent and tend to evaluate their performance with high standards.

2. Power Motivation: Power motivation, studied by David Winter in the 1970s, reflects the desire to exert influence, control, or authority over others. People with high power motivation tend to seek leadership positions and want to have an impact on the environment.

3. Affiliation Motivation: The affiliation motive reflects the desire to establish, maintain, and restore positive emotional relationships with others. McAdams (1980s) studied affiliation motivation, finding that it involves social comparison, seeking emotional support, and the desire for companionship and approval.

4. Intimacy Motivation: Intimacy refers to the desire for close, warm, and communicative exchanges with others. This is seen as a subset of affiliation, with more emphasis on self-disclosure and attentive listening.

Murray’s needs theory was an early precursor to modern personality theories. He also developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which is still used in psychological assessments to identify an individual’s underlying motives by analyzing the stories they tell about ambiguous images.

Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors

Raymond Cattell (1905-1998) sought to empirically identify key traits of personality using a scientific approach. He began with Allport and Odbert’s list of approximately 17,000 personality-related words and refined them into 171 traits, which he used for factor analysis to develop a more concise model. His major work resulted in identifying 16 Personality Factors (16PF) that he argued describe the essential traits of personality.

The 16PF dimensions are:

1. Warmth: Ranging from cold, reserved, and detached to supportive, caring, and sociable.
2. Reasoning: From concrete thinkers who focus on practical solutions to abstract thinkers who focus on ideas and concepts.
3. Emotional Stability: From individuals who are reactive and easily upset to those who remain calm and composed under stress.
4. Dominance: From submissive and cooperative individuals to assertive, competitive individuals who seek control.
5. Liveliness: From sober, serious individuals to fun-loving, spontaneous, and lively individuals.
6. Rule-Consciousness: From expedient and flexible individuals to those who are conscientious and adhere strictly to rules and procedures.
7. Social Boldness: From shy and timid individuals to outgoing, socially confident individuals.
8. Sensitivity: From practical, tough-minded individuals to imaginative and sensitive individuals.
9. Vigilance: From trusting individuals to those who are skeptical and cautious of others’ motives.
10. Abstractedness: From pragmatic and down-to-earth individuals to imaginative and abstract thinkers.
11. Privateness: From forthright, open individuals to private, secretive, and reserved individuals.
12. Apprehension: From confident individuals to those who are self-doubting and anxious.
13. Openness to Change: From individuals who are traditional and prefer routine to those who are open-minded and flexible.
14. Self-Reliance: From group-oriented individuals to those who prefer to work and make decisions independently.
15. Perfectionism: From individuals who are tolerant of disorder to those who are organized, detailed, and strive for perfection.
16. Tension: From relaxed, patient individuals to tense, high-strung individuals.

Cattell believed that these 16 traits form the basic structure of personality. He used the 16PF questionnaire to measure individuals’ positions on these traits, providing a detailed personality profile.

Super Traits—Hans Eysenck

Hans Eysenck (1916-1997) proposed a model that aimed to simplify the structure of personality. He identified two super traits that encompass a wide range of behavior:

1. Extraversion vs. Introversion: Extraverts are sociable, lively, and dominant, whereas introverts are reserved, quiet, and less interactive with their environment.
2. Emotional Stability (Neuroticism) vs. Emotional Instability: People high in neuroticism are prone to anxiety, mood swings, and negative emotions, whereas emotionally stable individuals are calm, even-tempered, and less affected by stress.

Later, Eysenck added a third trait:

3. Psychoticism: Refers to a predisposition toward aggression, impulsivity, antisocial behavior, and a lack of empathy. People high in psychoticism are more likely to engage in risky or deviant behaviors.

Eysenck developed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) to measure these dimensions. His theory suggests that these super traits have biological bases. For example, he hypothesized that extraverts have a lower level of cortical arousal, leading them to seek stimulation, whereas introverts have higher cortical arousal and tend to avoid overstimulation.

His research, such as his 1968 study, showed that these traits could predict behaviors like the age at which individuals first engaged in sexual activity (extraverts tended to be younger).

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is based on Carl Jung’s theory of psychological types, and it categorizes individuals into one of 16 personality types using four dichotomies:

1. Extroverted (E) vs. Introverted (I): Where individuals focus their energy, either externally on people and activities or internally on thoughts and ideas.
2. Sensing (S) vs. Intuitive (N): How individuals take in information, either through facts and details (S) or patterns and possibilities (N).
3. Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F): How individuals make decisions, either through logical analysis (T) or based on personal values and emotional considerations (F).
4. Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P): How individuals approach the world, either with structure and planning (J) or spontaneity and flexibility (P).

These combinations result in personality types like ESTJ (extroverted, sensing, thinking, judging), INFP (introverted, intuitive, feeling, perceiving), and many others. Some key types include:

• ESTJ: Practical, realistic, and decisive, often taking charge and enforcing rules.
• INFP: Idealistic, empathetic, and focused on personal values and meaningful goals.
• ESFP: Outgoing, spontaneous, and hands-on, often living in the moment and enjoying the present.
• INTJ: Strategic, logical, and goal-oriented, often focusing on long-term achievements.
• ESFJ: Warm-hearted, responsible, and attentive to others, often focused on creating harmonious relationships.
• INTP: Analytical, innovative, and independent thinkers, often driven by curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge.

The MBTI is widely used for personal development, career counseling, and team building.

ABCD TYPE PERSONALITY

(IMPORTANT FOR EXAMS)

1) Type A (The Achiever):

In Studies: Likely to be highly driven, organized, and goal-oriented. Type A students often push themselves to excel in academics and may take on leadership roles in group projects.

Strengths: Strong work ethic, ability to manage time well, and focus on achieving high grades.

Challenges: May experience stress or burnout; could benefit from working on stress management techniques and pacing themselves.

2) Type B (The Socializer):

In Studies: Relaxed and easygoing, Type B students can balance work with fun, which helps them handle the demands of BBA studies without excessive stress.

Strengths: Creativity, sociability, and ability to remain calm under pressure, which is valuable during presentations or group discussions.

Challenges: Sometimes lack urgency or motivation; setting specific goals can help maintain focus.

3) Type C (The Analyst):

In Studies: Type C students are detail-oriented, which can help with research, analysis, and data-related aspects of BBA. They are likely to excel in subjects like accounting, finance, and operations management.

Strengths: Strong analytical skills, thoroughness, and accuracy, essential for finance and quantitative subjects.

Challenges: Overthinking and perfectionism can slow progress; working on decisiveness and adaptability can help.

4) Type D (The Stabilizer):

In Studies: Type D students prefer structure and stability, often excelling in roles that require careful planning and routine, such as project management or administration.

Strengths: Dependability, attention to routine, and loyalty, making them reliable team players.

Challenges: May find it hard to adapt to changes or face stressful environments. Developing flexibility and stress-management skills will be beneficial.

The Big-Five Model (OCEAN)

(important for exams)

The Big-Five Model or Five-Factor Model (FFM) is the most widely accepted model of personality in modern psychology. It identifies five broad personality traits that are supported by research across different cultures and ages:

1. Openness to Experience: Reflects creativity, imagination, and curiosity. High scorers are more likely to seek new experiences and enjoy abstract thinking (that are physically present and to be represent theoritically). Low scorers prefer routine and familiarity.

2. Conscientiousness: Reflects organization, dependability, and discipline. High scorers tend to be detail-oriented, reliable, and able to delay gratification. Low scorers are more spontaneous and less driven by achievement.

3. Extraversion: Reflects sociability, assertiveness, and a tendency to seek out excitement and stimulation. High scorers are outgoing and energetic. Low scorers are reserved and more comfortable in solitary activities.

4. Agreeableness: Reflects cooperation, compassion, and trust. High scorers are empathetic, caring, and eager to help others. Low scorers are more competitive and less concerned with others' feelings.

5. Neuroticism: Reflects emotional instability and the tendency to experience negative emotions. High scorers are prone to anxiety, depression, and mood swings. Low scorers are emotionally stable and resilient.

The NEO-PI-R (Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Personality Inventory-Revised) is commonly used to measure these traits.